Unit 8 Memory
Overview
How much of who you are depends upon your memory? This frequently asked memory question posits memory as if it were a single ability. Most people at some point in there life have exclaimed how poor they think their memory is and then follow it up with the thought, “I wish I could improve my memory!” The reality concerning memory, though, is much more complex. It is more accurate to think of memory as several distinct kinds of memory abilities, rather than just a singular function. Three categories of memory discussed in the textbook are short term (or working) memory, declarative and non-declarative memory. Each of these categories have several different kinds of memory systems attributed to them. So rather than evaluating your overall memory, it may be more accurate to state that I’m great at this kind of memory work, however, this particular memory ability could use some improvement. This description is reinforced by the textbook definition of memory as a collection of several systems that store information in different forms for differing amounts of time (Krause et al., 2018), for different purposes.
Topics
This unit is divided into the following topics:
- Encoding, Storage, & Retrieval
- Memory Construction
- Improving Memory
Learning Outcomes
When you have completed this unit, you should be able to:
- Define the key terminology of memory systems including forgetting, encoding, retrieval, and how memories are organized and constructed.
- Describe which structures in the brain are associated with specific memory tasks and how the brain changes as new memories form and how the type of cognitive processing employed can affect the chances of remembering what you encounter.
- Apply your knowledge of the neural basis of memory to predict what types of memory would be affected by damage to different areas of the brain and how to improve your ability to memorize information.
- Analyze the claim that humans have multiple memory systems and whether emotional memories are more accurate than non-emotional ones.
- Describe why schemas are important frameworks for encoding and constructing memories and how psychologists can produce false memories in the laboratory.
- Analyze what you have learned to judge the reliability of eyewitness testimony and why that is important in the “recovered memory” debate.
Activity Checklist
Here is a checklist of learning activities you will benefit from in completing this unit. You may find it useful for planning your work.
Learning Activities
- Read and Reflect – Chapter 7
- Review the Unit 8 – Course Notes (found on Course Notes tab)
- Complete the Memory Experiment activity
- Complete the Constructing Memory activity.
- Complete the Cultural Considerations and Improving Memory activity.
Note
The course units follow topics in the textbook, Revel for An Introduction to Psychological Science by Krause et al. (4th Edition). For each unit, please read the pertinent chapter(s) before completing the assessment for the unit.
Assessment
In this course you demonstrate your understanding of the course learning outcomes in different ways, including papers, projects, discussions and quizzes. Please see the Assessment section in Moodle for assignment details and due dates.
8.1 Encoding, Storage, and Retrieval
We begin our study of memory with an exploration of three very important operations that form the foundation of the process of memory: encoding, storage, and retrieval.
Encoding
Encoding is the process of transforming an experience (sight, sound, feeling) into a memory.
One common memory “problem” that we often experience may be a problem in encoding. Have you ever met someone new, only to find a few minutes later that you cannot recall the person’s name? It may be that when you were meeting the person, you were a little nervous, and wanting to do the right thing, including giving your name at the right time, you didn’t really pay attention to the other person’s name. As a result, the name was not encoded, or placed into storage.
Storage
After memories are encoded, they are placed in storage from which they are later retrieved. We often assume that our memories “fail” because they are lost from storage. However, the difficulty could also be a problem in encoding or retrieval.
Retrieval
Have you ever tried to recall something, a name for example, and been unable to, although you were sure you knew what it was? It might have felt like it was on the tip of your tongue. You were tantalizingly close to remembering it, but you just couldn’t. Perhaps later you were able to recall the name with no trouble at all. If so, the earlier problem was a retrieval problem. Encoding had been successful, and the item had been preserved in storage. You just weren’t able to retrieve it. The later situation might have included important retrieval cues, stimuli that “reminded” you of the seemingly lost memory item. (It may be lack of retrieval cues that makes dreams to hard to recall for many people.) Not being able to recall something at one moment only to retrieve it later is an indicator that it is very likely that we have a lot more information in storage than we can readily recall.
Activity: Read and Reflect
Take a moment to read through chapter 7 of your textbook and review the Course Notes for this unit. Consider how some of the themes and concepts you read about apply to what you have learned in this section.
Activity: Memory Experiment
Having just learned about the encoding, storage, and retrieval parts of the information processing theory, take some time to enjoy a video presentation on human information processing. There is also a practical application activity where you’ll use the information processing components to test your own short term memory abilities. While you are doing these things allow yourself some time to cogitate on the following questions: What would not change if we had no memory? Would we know who we were? What would it be like to wake up in the morning without memory?
Watch: Human Information Processing
Next, try to the experiment, click on the following link:
After performing the experiments above, consider the following questions:
- What would not change if we had no memory? Would we even know who we were? What would it be like to wake up in the morning without memory?
- If you believe in an afterlife, does this include memories? Would you still be you without your memories?
Be prepared to share your thoughts and insights with other members of the class
8.2 Memory Construction
One of the most popular models of memory sees memory as act of conscious reconstruction of the past, much like the assembly of pieces of a puzzle. If I asked you, “What were you doing on this day a year ago?” what would you say? Or more importantly, how would you get your answer? If you thought about it, you would probably piece together information about where you were, what day of the week it was, and what you typically did on that day. That is, you would construct (or reconstruct) the memory. If it was an unusual day, you might have certain images or other specific fragments to use. However, the final product would be a composite of sensory images and logical inferences.
One of the consequences of this process is that it is vulnerable to influence, with the result that a memory can be distorted or even created falsely. One way to influence the constructive process of recall is to make subtle suggestions in the recall question. For example, “What colour was the background of the previous lesson in this series?” The background was actually white, but the question implies a color. This could lead you to recall a color where none existed. Of course this example is trivial. However, in a court of law such answers can be very significant.
Here is a simple experiment to illustrate this point:
Memory distortion can be induced through a recognition memory test (from Dr. Daniel Schacter - Harvard University) Think of and try to memorize the following words: candy sour sugar bitter good taste tooth nice honey soda chocolate tart cake eat pie. When asked if ‘taste’, ‘point’ or ‘sweet’ were in the list, most people correctly identify the first two but many erroneously believe that ‘sweet’ was in the list. This is called ‘source memory confusion’. It may occur because memory depends on meaning. People are left with a sense or meaning of an event or list and this usually serves us very well. It can, however, leave us with a false memory. ‘Sweet’ is related to the words in the list and people aren’t sure if the word seems familiar because it was in the list or because it was thought of when the list was read.
Activity: Constructing Memory
This activity involves four resources to continue helping you remember information about memory. The first is site provides definitions and examples of all different kinds of memory processes, the second looks at what is normal vs. abnormal memory loss during aging, the third investigates false memory syndrome, and the last is a video on implanting false memories:
Finally, take a few moments to watch this interesting video on implanting false memories:
Watch: Julia Shaw on “Memory Hackers” Nova
Consider the following questions:
- In light of the evidence for memory as a constructive process, and its susceptibility to distortion, what recommendations would you make for our legal system? For example, how should witnesses be questioned, or suspects interrogated? How should claims of childhood sexual abuse be evaluated?
Be prepared to share your thoughts and insights with other members of the class
8.3 Improving Memory
Understanding how memory works can help you improve your ability to remember new material (such as this course!). You can use the textbook and an online search to discover how to improve your own memory. Try searching for the following terms: method of loci, imagery (&) memory, one-bun technique, mnemonics, depth (of) processing, memory (&) acronyms. You will find a lot of useful information. Using these techniques requires an investment of time initially. However, the results can be quite spectacular.
Sometimes people will refer to memory techniques, or mnemonic devices, as “tricks.” However, there is nothing devious or underhanded about them; they are not really tricks at all. In fact, we all use these devices to some extent already. Even if you just “go over and over” new material, you inevitably start to process it differently, either by seeing connections with already stored information, or beginning to see patterns, rhymes, or images associated with the new material. Studying and practicing these changes just makes their use more conscious and efficient.
Activity: Cultural Considerations and Improving Memory
Language can play a role in one’s ability to initially acquire and then grow in linguistic and mathematical ability. For example, short-term memory for digits (digit span) has been found to vary for speakers of different languages. Rumjahn Hoosain and his colleagues report that longer digit span for numbers in Chinese is related to the shorter time required to pronounce digits in Chinese than in English. You can witness this for yourself if you know someone who is a native Chinese speaker (Mandarin); simply challenge them to a race in counting to ten in Mandarin and your language of choice. You can read more about the study here:
Though some languages have built-in advantages for acquisition and retrieval; regardless of what language you speak, you can always improve your memory. Below are a couple of resources to help you become a master of memory:
The following video can also help support your understanding:
Watch: Mind Palace (Simple Guide) - 5 Steps to Remember Things With a Memory Palace
After exploring these resources, consider the following questions:
- What is the best way you have found to memorize new material? Do you just go over and over it? Do you use images? Do you form acronyms? Describe one of your favorite methods and give an example.
Be prepared to share your thoughts and insights with other members of the class
Assessment
Refer to the course schedule for graded assignments you are responsible for submitting. All graded assignments, and their due dates, can be found on the “Assessment” tab.
In addition to any graded assignments you are responsible for submitting, be sure to complete all the Learning Activities that have been provided throughout the content - these are intended to support your understanding of the content.
Checking your Learning
Before you move on to the next unit, you may want to check to make sure that you are able to:
- Define the key terminology of memory systems including forgetting, encoding, retrieval, and how memories are organized and constructed.
- Describe which structures in the brain are associated with specific memory tasks and how the brain changes as new memories form and how the type of cognitive processing employed can affect the chances of remembering what you encounter.
- Apply your knowledge of the neural basis of memory to predict what types of memory would be affected by damage to different areas of the brain and how to improve your ability to memorize information.
- Analyze the claim that humans have multiple memory systems and whether emotional memories are more accurate than non-emotional ones.
- Describe why schemas are important frameworks for encoding and constructing memories and how psychologists can produce false memories in the laboratory.
- Analyze what you have learned to judge the reliability of eyewitness testimony and why that is important in the “recovered memory” debate.