Unit 7 Learning
Overview
Learning is essential for living. Virtually everything that you have ever done and are doing today required some form of learning (and memory, which will be discussed in the next unit). But what is learning? And how do we know when we’ve actually learned something? According to Krause et al. (2018) learning is a process by which behaviour or knowledge changes as a result of experience. Which means then, following from this definition, that everyone learns, not just students who are busying themselves with reading, listening, taking tests, and writing papers – all to acquire new information. The process by which people acquire learning in the fashion that students do is known as cognitive learning, and it is just one type of learning. There are actually many different ways that people learn, some of those ways include classical conditioning (which is based on associative learning), operant conditioning (learning based on consequences of behaviour), and observational learning (learning by watching others).
Topics
This unit is divided into the following topics:
- Classical Conditioning
- Operant Conditioning
- Higher Learning
- Applications of Learning
Learning Outcomes
When you have completed this unit, you should be able to:
- Define and apply the key terminology involved in classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and cognitive and observational learning.
- Explain how responses learned through classical conditioning can be acquired and lost, and the role of biological and evolutionary factors in classical conditioning.
- Apply the concepts and terms of classical conditioning and operant conditioning to new examples, and apply principles of observational learning outside of the laboratory.
- Analyze the use of negative political advertising to condition emotional responses to candidates and the effectiveness of punishment on changing behaviour.
- Explain the role that consequences play in increasing or decreasing behaviour, and how schedules of reinforcement affect behaviour.
- Describe the concept of latent learning and its relevance to cognitive aspects of learning.
- Analyze the claim that viewing violent media increases violent behaviour.
Activity Checklist
Here is a checklist of learning activities you will benefit from in completing this unit. You may find it useful for planning your work.
Learning Activities
- Read and Reflect – Chapter 6
- Review the Unit 7 – Course Notes (found on Course Notes tab)
- Complete the Classical Conditioning activity
- Complete the Using Classical and Operant Conditioning activity.
- Complete the Habits activity.
- Review the Alcohol Information activity
Note
The course units follow topics in the textbook, Revel for An Introduction to Psychological Science by Krause et al. (4th Edition). For each unit, please read the pertinent chapter(s) before completing the assessment for the unit.
Assessment
In this course you demonstrate your understanding of the course learning outcomes in different ways, including papers, projects, discussions and quizzes. Please see the Assessment section in Moodle for assignment details and due dates.
7.1 Classical Conditioning
Classical conditioning is the most basic kind of learning there is. You associate all kinds of events with certain responses towards them. For example, your mother might give great hugs, and when you see, or think, about her, you anticipate how great a hug from her will feel. Maybe, you met an aging person in your community who gave you a candy. When you think of, or see, him you become excited at the potential reception of a sweet treat. What’s more, if you have a pet you have probably noticed that your cat or dog comes running whenever you shake the box of treats or start the can opener—even if the box contains marbles or the can is baked beans. Your pet has associated, or linked, the two stimuli, 1) food, and 2) a particular sound, so that the sound initiates the response to food – for some animals this could explain their excitement as their owner opens the door.
Activity: Read and Reflect
Take a moment to read through chapter 6 of your textbook and review the Course Notes for this unit. Consider how some of the themes and concepts you read about apply to what you have learned in this section.
Activity: Classical Conditioning
Have you ever wondered why some people feel uneasy at the sound of thunder or the popping of a balloon makes them scream? Well, a very important application of classical conditioning involves emotion. Our emotions condition very easily and rapidly—especially our intense emotions. Check out the example of Little Albert:
The link below is to a PowerPoint presentation of Pavlov’s study that describes classical conditioning and its associated terms step-by-step:
After exploring the resources above, consider the questions below:
- Have you ever had pain associated with a harmless stimulus so that you came to fear the previously neutral stimulus? For example, do you feel uncomfortable going to a dentist as the result of previous painful visits?
Be prepared to share your thoughts and insights with other members of the class
7.2 Operant Conditioning
Have you ever taught your dog to do tricks? If you have, then you have probably used operant conditioning. In essence, when a reward follows a behavior, the behavior is likely to increase - Give your dog a treat (or praise), when she stands on her hind legs, and she will likely stand on her hind legs more often. Operant conditioning is a very powerful technique for controlling behavior—in animals and in humans.
The basic principles of classical and operant conditioning have many practical applications. The activity below will highlight how they can be used.
Activity: Using Classical and Operant Conditioning
Imagine that you are school psychologists trying to eliminate a “school phobia” in Little Albert. Albert trembles, goes pale, sweats, and develops stomach cramps when he goes to school. You should first identify conditions under which Albert could have acquired his phobia through classical conditioning. (What is the UCS, CS, UCR, and CR?) Next, in the second stage, prescribe procedures to help Albert overcome his phobia.
In the second stage, you are to imagine that you are school psychologists who has been asked to study Albert and his school phobia. Describe one way that Albert might have learned his school phobia through operant conditioning. Next, describe at least one way to eliminate the undesirable response, using operant conditioning techniques, such as extinction, punishment, or the reinforcement of alternative responses. For example, to do this, you would first teach Little Albert how to relax himself through breathing. You could then reward him for every progression towards school that he makes while managing his phobias. Soon, Little Albert’s phobia of fear will be replaced by a sense of reward and excitement for going to school.
Creatures of Habit
“OK,” you say, “these conditioning ideas seem to work pretty well with animals, but I’m not a dog. And I don’t have a phobia either. What good are they to me?”
Glad you asked! Consider the following discussion from Philipchalk, (1988):
Most of us grossly underestimate the influence habits have on us. William James (1900) in his discourse on habits quotes the Duke of Wellington as saying, “Habits second nature? Habit is ten times nature.” Each day we perform innumerable acts with very little conscious thought. The way we walk, dress, brush our teeth, eat our food, is so automatic that if the habitual pattern is interrupted, the whole behavior may become cumbersome and inefficient (try starting in a different place when you brush your teeth). Habits are useful; indeed they are necessary. Their very utility resides in the fact that they allow us to perform complex behaviors very frequently, over and over, “without thinking.” They are the “automatic pilot,” the “cruise control” of our behavioral repertoire.
However, it is this very lack of thought that constitutes a possible danger. Who of us has not been annoyed by another’s habits? More importantly, a lack of appreciation for the power of habit (“ten times nature”) deprives us of a powerful ally in attaining goals for our behavior. Too often we attempt to change our behavior through sheer force of willpower, and the result is discouragement. We muster all of our determination and bring it to bear on a certain behavior. This may be a problem with overeating, smoking, or public speaking, or even a failure to have a regular time of personal devotions, or to think on spiritual things and be aware of the presence of God. But because our efforts are based solely on good intentions and willpower, without an appreciation of the strength of habits, or the principles by which they are acquired or eliminated, we quickly become discouraged, and old habits regain their ground.
In the next section we will consider an example of changing a habitual behavior, but for now think about how conditioning might control some of your behaviors. Do you respond to some things because of their past association with pleasant or unpleasant stimuli? (Classical Conditioning) Do you do some things for the rewards that you get? (Operant Conditioning) B.F. Skinner, arguably the most important psychologist of the 20th century, believed that conditioning controls all of our behavior. Skinner said that the consequences of our actions determine what we do. We are not free; our environment controls us. If Skinner were right, what would this mean for our concepts of blame and praise? Could we blame someone or praise someone if the person was only responding to the environment?
For more learning concerning habits, enjoy the following link based on the book The Power of Habit by Charles Duhigg:
After reading through the section above, consider the following question:
- If all behavior is the result of our environment, then we should neither be blamed for our faults nor praised for our qualities. Do you agree that good or bad behavior is the result of good or bad environments?
Be prepared to share your thoughts and insights with other members of the class
7.3 “Higher” Learning
When we say “higher learning” we are not referring to a university education! We mean learning that involves so-called higher mental processes, that is, conscious thought. This might mean thinking about the behavior in question, imagining consequence of our actions, or observing someone else and then imitating what the other person does. The following application, from Psychology and Christianity (Philipchalk, 1988), illustrates these ideas. This example is for a time of personal reflection, bible reading and prayer, sometimes called personal devotions. If this doesn’t interest you, the same principles apply to other personal habits such as learning to set aside a time for meditation, reflection, journaling, or even planning your day.
Example:
As an example, let us consider the habit of a time of personal devotions (Bible study and prayer). This is probably one of the greatest sources of frustration today for Christians who desire to grow in their relationship with God. Most would admit the importance of this daily discipline, and yet an almost equal number would admit to spending little or no time in consistent personal Bible study and prayer. Therefore, the example of establishing a habit of morning devotions will be used as an illustration. This of course is only one of countless behaviors, which we could modify; it is used as an example because of its simplicity and its potential value. In selecting a target behavior it is important that it be simple and easily identifiable. This does not mean that we can deal with only simple (and insignificant) behaviors, but that more complex behaviors must be broken down into their simpler components and dealt with individually. Later they can be linked together to form the more complex “chains” from which they were derived.
Below you can learn about the principles of modification for beaviour. Each principle is connected to the example above to help demonstrate how it relates to behaviour modification:
1. Antecedents and Consequents: The first principle in the modification of behavior is that behavior is seen as a function of “antecedent” and “consequent” conditions. That is, no matter how strong a disposition or habit may be, the behavior will not occur unless the correct circumstances are present (antecedent conditions). Similarly, regardless of how correct or appropriate the circumstances may be the behavior will not be maintained if it does not produce desirable consequences. By manipulating these two, a powerful control over behavior is gained.
Those who would spend more time in Bible study must establish the right antecedents (time, place, Bible), for no matter how hard they desire their goal they will not attain it without these. They would also be wise to arrange positive consequences for performing the act, especially in the early stages of habit development. Although Bible study carries with it intrinsic rewards as the Holy Spirit illuminates the Scriptures to us, incompatible responses such as remaining in bed also contain rewards, and in addition are much more firmly established. During initial stages then, when intrinsic rewards are weak and old habits are strong, additional rewards should be arranged.
2. Rewards: Possible rewards include feelings of satisfaction and accomplishment, which may be delivered cognitively through self-instructions (e.g. “There, I’ve completed another study. I’ve accomplished something worthwhile.”). On the other hand, rewards may be more concrete. Any desirable situation, which is made contingent upon a behavior, will strengthen that behavior. Early morning devotions, for example, may be rewarded by a shower, or breakfast, providing one is willing to make these contingent upon the new behavior, foregoing them if the behavior is not performed. However, a more desirable approach is to institute new forms of reward so that the net result of the behavior change program is an increase in reward. While concrete rewards may be given each time the behavior is performed, a more practical approach is to keep a record of the behavior, giving tokens (e.g., a check mark in a book, or on the calendar) each time the behavior occurs. Specific concrete rewards are given when a predetermined number of tokens is reached (e.g., a new notebook or a pizza for a week’s devotions, a new concordance for a month, etc.).
3. Shaping: Initially, rewards should be frequent, and given for small improvements in behavior. Very gradually the standard is raised so that the goal is reached in gradual increments (shaping). Although the goal may be thirty minutes or more of devotional time per day, the behavior should be shaped towards the goal very gradually, beginning at minimal level. In general, one cannot begin too low or increase too slowly.
4. The Cognitive Component: The role of cognitive or mental events (thinking and imaging) must not be overlooked in a plan for behavior change. As noted above, cognitions may substitute for more tangible rewards – at least temporarily. In the form of self-instructions they can also bridge the gap that may exist between antecedent conditions and the desired behavior. For example, through imagined rehearsal (a very potent cognitive aid) an association may be formed between the alarm clock bell and the self-instructions “I must get up and move to the study for devotions,” so that when the alarm bell rings the self-instructions occur and the behavior follows. In fact the complete sequence can be strengthened through imagined rehearsal, especially when imagined reward is included.
5. Other Behaviours: In the interests of simplicity, a single overt behavior (personal devotions) has been used as an example. However, the same principles may be applied to covert behaviors such as thinking. Thinking on “good things” (Phil. 4:8) or making oneself aware of the presence of God (cf. Brother Lawrence) may be linked to the control of antecedent conditions (I know those who have used the hourly ‘alert’ with their cell phones have some success). In this case the natural consequences alone may be sufficiently rewarding to maintain the behavior.
More complex behavior, for example loving one’s spouse, must be analyzed in terms of the component thoughts and behaviors that would combine to demonstrate that love. As Fromm (1956) has noted, loving is not primarily a feeling over which we have no control, but may be more accurately seen as an “art” or skill which requires effort, and may be modified. Although behavior often follows feelings, feelings may also follow behavior. Love grows from loving actions probably more than we realize.
Cognitive psychology has shown the powerful effect on our lives of keeping in mind an image or “mental picture.” We gradually become the thing we picture – either good or bad. The Social-Cognitive perspective has also shown that our environment (social context) plays a major role in introducing and maintaining the various types of behaviour that form our mental pictures. Think of the pithy expression, “If you want to know your future look at your friends”, which is based on Proverbs 13:20, *“He that walks with wise men* shall be wise: but a companion of fools shall be destroyed.” Apart from God the natural inclination of man is to set his mind upon the “creature rather than the Creation” (Rom. 1:25). Christ was revealed as the perfect image and likeness of God so that as Christians we may be helped, by keeping Him in view, reflecting upon Him, to gradually be changed into His likeness (Rom. 8:29, II Cor. 3:18). We become like the things we love.
Activity: Habits
We are forming habits whether we wish to or not. If they are not desirable habits they are undesirable. Good habits may be viewed as the necessary groundwork or foundation upon which the spiritual superstructure may rest. The spiritual rewards follow, but the groundwork must be laid. As Brother Lawrence says, “That in the beginning of the spiritual life we ought to be faithful in doing our duty and denying ourselves; but after that, unspeakable pleasures followed.” (23) and later, “…by often repeating these acts, they become habitual, and the presence of God rendered as it were natural to us” (34). And finally, “And how can we often think of Him but by a holy habit which we should form of it?” (54). The emphasis here is clearly on the individual’s part in establishing habits that then become a channel for God’s blessing.
Although we frequently admit we are “creatures of habit,” too often we use this as an excuse rather than recognizing the opportunities for self-control, which are contained in this statement. Too often, self-control is sought through an effort of the will. When willpower fails, guilt and defeat result. Cognitive behavioral psychology offers an efficient commonsense aid to self-control. Its development serves as a timely reminder to Christians of the importance of habits in their lives.
If you are interested in growing your spiritual life and want to know more about Brother Lawrence, check out this resource (that includes a free download of The Practice of the Presence of God, by Brother Lawrence):
After exploring these resources, consider the following questions:
- How useful do you think it is to think of behavior in this way (i.e., as an A-B-C chain of antecedents, behavior, consequences)? How could you take advantage of this way of viewing your behavior, e.g., to change a habit?
Be prepared to share your thoughts and insights with other members of the class
7.4 Application of Learning
The final section of Unit 7 investigates the abuse of alcohol. While this section relies heavily on the learning chapter, it also includes ideas from earlier chapters where we discussed influences of biology and environment. In addition, the controversy over the classification of alcohol abuse anticipates a later chapter in the textbook covered in Psychology 106 on psychological disorders where we consider the appropriateness of a medical, or disease model of disorders.
There is no dispute over the fact that many people abuse alcohol. That is, their excess consumption of alcohol causes serious personal, physical, social, and economic problems for them, their families, and society at large. Controversy arises, however, when we attempt to label this problem. Many people view alcohol abuse as a disease. They believe some people are alcoholics and some people are not; and they tend to believe that they are born that way. This disease model assumes alcoholics are sick and need to be cured. For them, the only cure is complete abstinence.
Activity: Alcohol Information
Carrying on from the previous section, there is a growing number of researchers who view alcohol abuse as a problem behavior not a disease. This means the person has not learned appropriate alcohol related behaviors, in particular, moderation and self-control. (Abstinence is also an option in this approach, although it tends to emphasize moderation.) From this perspective, treatment involves learning - learning new adaptive behaviors to replace the old maladaptive ones.
Environments and culture also shape alcohol related behaviours. Many people in North America (and around the world) partake in alcoholic beverages believing that they might actually have positive physical health effects. However, a study done at the University of Victoria in 2016 has debunked the myth that consuming alcohol will have positive physical health benefits.
The resources below provide more information about viewing alcohol use disorder from a disease perspective, genetic factors that contribute to alcohol use, and a study that found no health benefits from moderate drinking:
After reviewing the information above, consider the following questions:
- What difference does it make if you assume someone has learned inappropriate behavior rather than inherited a disease?
- Alcoholism tends to run in families. How would the disease model versus the learning approach view this fact?
- What role might classical conditioning play in the development of alcohol abuse? How might it be used in treatment?
- What role might operant conditioning play in the development of alcohol abuse? How might it be used in treatment?
- What role might cognitive processes play in the development and treatment of alcohol abuse?
- What role might observational learning play in the development and treatment of alcohol abuse?
Be prepared to share your thoughts and insights with other members of the class
Assessment
Refer to the course schedule for graded assignments you are responsible for submitting. All graded assignments, and their due dates, can be found on the “Assessment” tab.
In addition to any graded assignments you are responsible for submitting, be sure to complete all the Learning Activities that have been provided throughout the content - these are intended to support your understanding of the content.
Checking your Learning
Before you move on to the next unit, you may want to check to make sure that you are able to:
- Define and apply the key terminology involved in classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and cognitive and observational learning.
- Explain how responses learned through classical conditioning can be acquired and lost, and the role of biological and evolutionary factors in classical conditioning.
- Apply the concepts and terms of classical conditioning and operant conditioning to new examples, and apply principles of observational learning outside of the laboratory.
- Analyze the use of negative political advertising to condition emotional responses to candidates and the effectiveness of punishment on changing behaviour.
- Explain the role that consequences play in increasing or decreasing behaviour, and how schedules of reinforcement affect behaviour.
- Describe the concept of latent learning and its relevance to cognitive aspects of learning.
- Analyze the claim that viewing violent media increases violent behaviour.