Social Inequality
Overview
Unit 4 looks at the large and important topic of inequality. We explore the topic within the framework of four areas of inequality that sociologists focus on. First, you will learn about economic inequality and how economic stratification creates classes of people that experience the social world around them quite differently. Next, we will look at gender inequality. We will see the difference between the concepts of sex and gender, and how these concepts influence different social experiences as well. Race and ethnicity make up the next categories that lead to inequality. Finally, we will broaden our scope and look at how inequality can be understood at a global level. This unit represents perhaps the driving force behind the motivations of many sociologists, so be prepared for a lot of information to come your way.
Topics
This unit is divided into the following topics:
1. Economic Inequality
- Class inequality and social stratification
- Poverty
- Social mobility
- Social determinants of health
2. Gender Inequality
- Gender at home, work, and school
- Violence against women
3. Racialization and Social Marginality
- Race and ethnicity
- Social distance
- Prejudice and discrimination
4. Global Inequality
- Globalization
- The role of technology
- The role of the state
- The role of migration
Learning Outcomes
When you have completed this unit, you should be able to:
- Consider the idea of a classless society with equal opportunities for social mobility
- Reflect on different measures of poverty and their strengths and weaknesses
- Compare differences in health status across segments of society and the social determinants of health
- Explore the meaning of the terms sex and gender and their societal relevance
- Discuss how gender shapes how we look at and experience the social world, including violence and victimization
- Examine how gender inequality affects a person’s educational goals and prospects in the job market
- Learn about key concepts and practices pertaining to racialization / ethnicity
- Reflect on how racialization / ethnicity can affect people’s everyday lives
- Expand your understanding social inequality to a global context
- Explain how nations are connected through relations of dominance and subordination
- Identify some of the social and economic effects of globalization on both high and low-income countries
Activity Checklist
Here is a checklist of learning activities you will benefit from in completing this unit. You may find it useful for planning your work.
Learning Activities
- Watch the video about the Good Life of China’s Wealthiest (6 Minutes)
- Research how poverty is measured in your region. (5 Minutes)
- Use the lifespan calculator to see how different characteristics are associated with longevity. (10 Minutes)
- Watch the video GoldieBlox and reflect on the way that you view the role roles of women in regards to STEM fields. (5 Minutes)
- Read the article about Jobs for Men and Women (15 Minutes)
- Watch the video DNA Journey and reflect on how you may perceive those who look differently than you. (15 Minutes)
- Watch 100 People in the World (5 Minutes)
- Watch the graphic illustration of the spread of McDonalds restaurants around the world (5 minutes)
- Read The Real Avatar Story (10 Minutes)
Assessment
- See the Assessment section in Moodle for assignment details and due dates.
Resources
Here are the resources you will need to complete this unit.
- Real-Life Sociology: A Canadian Approach by Anabel Quan-Haase and Lorne Tepperman.
- Other online resources will be provided in the unit.
Economic Inequality
Unit four looks at the different ways in which society categories people and then the way in which those people are ranked in importance in society. Rich or poor, male or female, black or white, the reality is you will not experience the social world the same way as others. This fascinates sociologists and motivates many of them in their research. Why is there inequality and how can it be fixed (if at all)? In order to understand why inequality is so important to sociologists, consider the way in which one group may experience the world differently than another group. Look at data from the sinking of the Titanic. Can you see how class and gender both influenced the survival rate when the ship sunk? (see image below)
Economic issues play prominently in the major theories we are focusing on as well as feminist theory. Karl Marx who provided the framework for conflict theory, built the theory around economics. He felt that economic equality and the dynamics that inequality creates, is what explains much of our social world. His basic argument is that economic inequality influences the way we relate to one another in society. In a simplistic version of his theory, he believed there were the haves (people who controlled the resources) and the have-nots (the group who relied on those with the resources to survive). Whether it was a slave/owner relationship, serf/landowner relationship, or, in his time, the factory owner and factory worker, the latter he called the bourgeoisie and proletariat. Max Weber later built on Marx’s ideas and generally agreed with him that there is class structure between the haves and have-nots, but felt it was more complex than just two groups. Weber believed that property, prestige, and power created the classes that make up a society.
Structural functionalism also recognizes social stratification but doesn’t necessarily view it as negative. This theory would suggest that inequality is a natural result of some functions of a society being more valued than others, and in order to incentivise the best talent to go into the most important jobs, inequality is going to be a result. We pay medical doctors more than baristas because we believe that medicine requires specialized skills and knowledge capabilities that making our espresso in the morning does not.
Symbolic interactionism is interested in the symbolic nature of economic inequality. For example, this theory would be interested in how people spend their money. Why do some people spend a lot for a car or phone when a less expensive one would do? The idea of conspicuous consumption was presented by Veblen in latter part of the 19th century. He was interested in the rise of the leisure class. This group had discretionary money beyond what they needed to survive, and Veblen was intrigued by how they spent that money. This idea builds on the earlier concept of cultural capital from the French sociologist Bourdieu. He suggested that we consume differently if we are in the upper class than we do in a lower class. We seek out status symbols that demonstrate to others that we are successful.
Activity: Cultural Capital
Watch the following video about high culture in China:
We don’t get to choose who our parents are, nor their economic situation, yet we find that we are more likely to be in the same economic classification of our parents than not. In some societies, it is almost impossible to change our standing in society. If we are born into a system where class is established at birth, we may never see a change. In contrast, there are societies in which social mobility is more available. There are a variety of reasons why one society may provide more mobility than another. Educational opportunities, religious beliefs, and economic systems are just some of the factors that influence mobility.
Economic inequality has the promise and lure of climbing the ladder of fame and fortune. We have movie stars and sports athletes to thank for giving us hope than anyone can make it big. The reality is that with economic inequality comes the other side of equality as well – poverty. See the graph below showing households with food insecurity.
Bar diagram of Percentage of Households with Food Insecurity
Poverty is defined differently by different groups. Often the term is meant to convey that the income received by those in poverty is not enough to sustain the basics of a healthy life. Different nations and regions have their own definition of poverty and what level of income constitutes being poverty. In Canada for example, the low income cut-off (LICO) is one of the definitions used. It represents the line at which a family is spending a disproportionate amount of their income on basic necessities like food and housing. This number is updated each year and varies on the size of the family and what part of the country they live in. As you can see in Figure 6.6, not all individuals experience poverty at the same rate. In Canada being single or a lone parent increases the chances that you will be living below the poverty line.
Activity: Measure of Poverty
Do a little research on your own to find out how poverty is measured in your region. Consider the official government agency definitions but also look for definitions that may be used by not for profit organizations who try to help those in poverty.
Inequality affects more than our ability to buy the latest gadgets, or the newest fashions, or even live in a bigger house. Inequality has life and death consequences. Social determinants of health (SDOH) are variables associated with economic inequality that impacts our quality of life, our access to quality health care, and ultimately how long we might live. The best way to illustrate this is to have you go through one of the typical insurance sponsored websites that use algorithms insurance companies use to determine how much a risk you are. It is also quite helpful for budding sociologists to get a sense of the difference life choices and opportunities can make in influencing how long we are expected to live.
Here are some examples to explore:
Activity: How Long Will I Live?
In order to get a better appreciation of the impact of inequality in the world, use the lifespan calculator to see how different characteristics are associated with longevity. In this example you will see gender, racial, and economic factors all play a part. Don’t try to replicate your own life but just try different combination of characteristics to see how the lifespan is changed. Convert to metric if needed.
How Long Will I Live?
Gender Inequality
Gender is the next topic in which we explore the topic of inequality. Before we look more closely at inequality and gender, we need to have a better understanding of the terms we are using in our discussion. The sociology of sex and gender is a large and sometimes controversial topic. By sex, we refer to the biological markers that differentiate males and females. Typically, this is a chromosome of XY for males and XX for females, although a closer examination will show this is not a simple binary division among the population.
Gender is a term that refers to socially constructed beliefs and behaviours about what it means to be masculine or feminine. Sociologists are particularly interested in this topic because of social nature. What it means to be masculine or feminine is highly influenced by the culture. For example, what constitutes masculine clothing or feminine roles is highly influenced by context. If we think a skirt is a piece of feminine clothing, what would say about a Scottish kilt? Or if we think cooking is a woman’s role, why are most of the world’s top chefs men? Gender identity is another important concept because it points to the reality that not all men identify with culturally mandated masculine markers. The same applies for females. Sociologists are interested in the way social scripts influence or socialize us to believe what we do about the way men and women are supposed to behave.
Source: Pixabay
In other words, how much does nature (our birth genetic make up) and nurture (the way we are socialized) affect the way experience and view gender? Gender inequality is played out in most areas of society. At home we see it in the division of labour in which woman tend to spend more time in home and child care while men spend more time in paid labour. The economic advantage of men has been historically linked to greater power and influence in the family. When men and women shared responsibilities for survival, the power differential was less than during agrarian times in which men tended to control the means of production. They owned the land and the equipment. In a post-industrial society, women have greater access to education and economic capital. As a result, the differences in earning power between men and women is declining. Women continue to deal with wage penalties and competing devotions between family and work life in ways that men do not experience.
Photo by Kelly Sikkema on Unsplash
In education, women now outnumber men in higher education, but inequity is still visible. In areas of science, technology, engineering, and math (STEM) curriculum, men outnumber women. These fields tend to be viewed as the more advantageous fields to be in especially in a post-industrial society.
Photo by Alex Sorto on Unsplash
Activity: GoldieBlox
Watch the video below and reflect on the way that you view the role roles of women in regards to STEM fields. (2 minutes)
Gendered Work
After reading the brief article in the link below, reflect on what you consider to be male jobs and female jobs and then consider why you think that.
Jobs for Men and Women
Inequality creates an opportunity for abuse of power and in connection to the topic of gender inequality, that translates into women being victims of abuse at the hands of men. Power and abuse are not the sole domain of men, yet statistics will demonstrate that women are almost always the victims of serious abuse. Feminist theory would point to the power imbalance that favours men being supported in society. Women with less resources in the form of education and capital (social and economic) have less options to leave an abusive relationship.
Racial and Ethnic Inequality
In this section we will learn about race and ethnicity and how these terms are associated with inequality within a culture. Like our discussion of gender and sex, race and ethnicity have both nature (biological components) and nurture (social components). We need to remember that sociologists are interested in social forces that shape people’s beliefs and behaviours. They are interested in why one group of people is treated differently than another, or why one group of people is viewed differently than another.
Defining groups is most easily done on outward visible appearance. When asked to describe someone you just saw, you are going to rely on the most obvious characteristics. If the person is much taller or shorter you may reference that, or older or younger, or has a different hair colour or visible tattoos. We might comment on their clothing or head covering. We do the same thing with skin colour and facial features because they are easily visible. In our discussion of inequality, our interests in these distinguishing features is how they are used to group people who then experience social life in unequal ways.
Image from Pixabay
Discrimination occurs when a group with unique visual or behavioural characteristics are treated unfairly through exclusion or disadvantaged opportunities. Racial profiling occurs when individuals of a particular racial group presumed to be associated with negative behaviour because of their appearance. What sociologists find so interesting about discrimination and racial profiling is that ideas of race and ethnicity are often viewed as purely genetic when in fact they are social. When asked how many races there are, people will usually select a small number of 3 to 5 groups. We need to understand that although the physical appearance of people is not all the same, the number of groups of people is a socially constructed number.
Activity: DNA Test
Watch the video below and reflect on how you may perceive those who look differently than you. (5 minutes)
Note that you may be asked to discuss this activity with your peers. Be sure to take notes and reflect on what you have learned.
Ethnicity, in contrast to race, is based not primarily on physical characteristics, but on symbolic cultural characteristics such as language and tradition. Ethnicity is more fluid than racial characteristics because they can be changed, unlike biological characteristics which are generally more static. Inequality among racial and ethnic groups is evident from areas such as policing, hiring, and perceived value to society.
Social Distance
Table explaining key concepts of Radicalization
Inequality manifests itself in race and ethnic differences at different levels of society. A person may exhibit racism at the individual level and not even be aware of their tendencies. Microaggression can be subtle behaviours that demonstrate the lack of inclusion or sensitivity to someone who is different than you. Something one person may consider to be a compliment could actually come across as demeaning. Microaggression often lies below the surface of everyday social life. On the other end of social levels, the macro level, is institutional racism. This form of racism is supported and encouraged by the state. An obvious example of this would be apartheid as practiced in South Africa during the latter half of the 20th century. Laws and rules are set up to disadvantage a whole group of people. This form of macro racism, when taken to the extreme, can result in genocide: the systematic, large scale annihilation of an entire ethnic group.
Global Inequality
Global inequality is the final area that we want to explore in this unit. Before discussing the issue inequality as it is applied globally, take a look at the video below to get a sense of the diversity of groups illustrated.
Activity: 100 People
Watch the following video.
Global inequality is an extension of inequality at a local level. Rather than looking at inequality with a city or a region of a country, global inequality studies the concept of inequality among nations and regions of the world. Rather than use hierarchical terms like first, second, and third world, today sociologists discuss two regions of the world, Global North and Global South. Global North countries tend to be economically and technological further along the development scale than Global South countries are.
Figure 9.1 and Table 9.1 do a good job of illustrating two economic measure of inequality in the world today.
List of top and bottom 10 countries, GDP and HDI
Pie chart of various countries with their economies
Global inequality must be understood in the context of globalization, another key sociological concept. Globalization is the increased homogenization of the world through international trade, travel, and exchange of material and symbolic culture. It is a local economy on an international scale. Technology allows us to communicate, buy and sell, travel, and experience the entire world like never before. Some think this is a good thing, while others are indifferent or strongly negative toward the idea.
Activity: McDonalds
Watch the graphic illustration of spread of McDonalds restaurants around the world. If you are a fan of Big Macs, then this may seem like a good thing.
Opponents of globalization see inequality among nations and regions as feeding grounds for exploitation. Conflict theorists would see international inequality as an extension of the inequality that occurs at the local level. Those countries or regions with the economic resources will take advantage of those that do not have these resources. It is just a bigger version of the haves and have-nots. There are several sub theories that use this inequality to illustrate their concerns. One of these is the World System Theory put forward by Wallenstein.
Diagram of the flow of goods and resources
Photo credit: Wikimedia Commons
The theory states that Global North countries exploit Global South countries by taking their raw material like oil, gold or other valuable resources and turn them into finished products only to then turn around and sell those items to those countries.
If you have seen the movie, Avatar, then you have a pretty good idea of world systems theory only at the intergalactic level.
Movie poster of the film Avatar
Activity: The Real Avatar Story
Go online and read about the movie Avatar by James Cameron, then take a look at the article link below which describes the movie but from a conflict perspective. What do you think the movie is really about?
Structural functionalists see free trade and open markets are providing a better opportunity for competition and rewarding efficiency. They see globalization as a positive development. Feminists see women being the primary ones who are exploited by globalization. Women are often given the most menial jobs in society, and when employed by an international company, they are often taken advantage of and paid poorly. Symbolic interactionists explore meaning making and value creation of globalization. What is foreign and what is domestic? What is real progress? Do we value profit over quality of life? These are some of the issues symbolic interactionists are interested in studying. (Click to enlarge the photo)
Image of major components of a car
Source: Global Auto Parts Cyprus
Technology is at the heart of globalization. Without airplanes, computers, and smartphones to name a few, the world would be more isolated and harder to connect. You know what is going on in the world in real time. Using social media, such as a Twitter feed, Facebook status update, or Instagram post puts you in touch with news, trends, and developments as they happen. Diffusion can happen much more quickly than in the past. Both social and mainstream media are selective in what they present and how they present it. Is a new Nike Factory in Bangladesh a good thing or not? Media influences our views on these issues and those with greater resources may be able to influence the narrative compared to those who don’t.
Another big issue related to globalization and inequality is the role of migration. International migration represents the movement of human beings from their home country to one or more receiving countries. Refugees represent a large percentage of migrants, but those seeking out better economic opportunities represent a much larger portion of international migration. Often these migrants are highly educated and valuable to their home country but they leave in order to leverage that human capital. This perpetuates the inequality through brain drain.
Summary
In Unit 4, you were exposed to the topic of inequality and how it plays out in various spheres of society. By looking at economic, gender, racial, and global inequality you were able to get a better grasp as to why sociologists are so interested in inequality; its roots, its impact on human lives, and ways to alleviate it. Each topic is large and contains a wealth of information. Common to all aspects of inequality is the place of economic inequality represented in each topic. Conflict theorists are probably feeling pretty good about themselves after this section. Economic differences have a ripple effect on so many other social areas. Economic wealth brings power and influence at the macro level as illustrated by World Systems theory, and at the micro level this is evident in macroaggressions between groups with and without power. If inequality produces such different social outcomes, is there a way to end it, or at least to mitigate the negative impact it can have? Political and economic systems have different views and solutions. For now, it is key to understand the importance of inequality creating different pathways in the social world.
Assessment
Quizzes 6, 7, 8, and 9
After completing this unit, including the learning activities, you are asked to complete four online quizzes reviewing material from chapters 6-9.
These quizzes are meant to be formative, and a tool to help you measure your own understanding of the course material.
Go to Quizzes in the main Assessment tab for access to Quizzes 6-9. Note that the quizzes will be administered in the Learning Lab.
Be sure to practice with the online quizzes from the textbook.
Assignment: Reflective Journal
The Reflective Journal assignment is a chance to present your understanding and application of the course material, ask questions, and clarify issues. We are looking for evidence that you are engaging the course material. Examine the learning outcomes for each unit and ensure that your journal addresses each outcome. Include your thoughts from the learning activities and how you apply the concepts to your life and current events.
Refer to the Assessment section in Moodle for all other assignment details and due dates.
Checking your Learning
Before you move on to the next unit, you may want to check to make sure
that you are able to:
- Consider the idea of a classless society with equal opportunities for social mobility
- Reflect on different measures of poverty and their strengths and weaknesses
- Compare differences in health status across segments of society and the social determinants of health
- Explore the meaning of the terms sex and gender and their societal relevance
- Discuss how gender shapes how we look at and experience the social world including violence and victimization
- Examine how gender inequality affects a person’s educational goals and prospects in the job market
- Learn about key concepts and practices pertaining to racialization / ethnicity
- Reflect on how racialization / ethnicity can affect people’s everyday lives
- Expand your understanding social inequality to a global context
- Explain how nations are connected through relations of dominance and subordination
- Identify some of the social and economic effects of globalization on both high and low-income countries
Unit 4 Social Inequality
Overview
Unit 4 looks at the large and important topic of inequality. We explore the topic within the framework of four areas of inequality that sociologists focus on. First, you will learn about economic inequality and how economic stratification creates classes of people that experience the social world around them quite differently. Next, we will look at gender inequality. We will see the difference between the concepts of sex and gender, and how these concepts influence different social experiences as well. Race and ethnicity make up the next categories that lead to inequality. Finally, we will broaden our scope and look at how inequality can be understood at a global level. This unit represents perhaps the driving force behind the motivations of many sociologists, so be prepared for a lot of information to come your way.
Topics
This unit is divided into the following topics:
1. Economic Inequality
2. Gender Inequality
3. Racialization and Social Marginality
4. Global Inequality
Learning Outcomes
When you have completed this unit, you should be able to:
Activity Checklist
Here is a checklist of learning activities you will benefit from in completing this unit. You may find it useful for planning your work.
Learning Activities
Assessment
Resources
Here are the resources you will need to complete this unit.
4.1 Economic Inequality
Unit four looks at the different ways in which society categories people and then the way in which those people are ranked in importance in society. Rich or poor, male or female, black or white, the reality is you will not experience the social world the same way as others. This fascinates sociologists and motivates many of them in their research. Why is there inequality and how can it be fixed (if at all)? In order to understand why inequality is so important to sociologists, consider the way in which one group may experience the world differently than another group. Look at data from the sinking of the Titanic. Can you see how class and gender both influenced the survival rate when the ship sunk? (see image below)
Economic issues play prominently in the major theories we are focusing on as well as feminist theory. Karl Marx who provided the framework for conflict theory, built the theory around economics. He felt that economic equality and the dynamics that inequality creates, is what explains much of our social world. His basic argument is that economic inequality influences the way we relate to one another in society. In a simplistic version of his theory, he believed there were the haves (people who controlled the resources) and the have-nots (the group who relied on those with the resources to survive). Whether it was a slave/owner relationship, serf/landowner relationship, or, in his time, the factory owner and factory worker, the latter he called the bourgeoisie and proletariat. Max Weber later built on Marx’s ideas and generally agreed with him that there is class structure between the haves and have-nots, but felt it was more complex than just two groups. Weber believed that property, prestige, and power created the classes that make up a society.
Structural functionalism also recognizes social stratification but doesn’t necessarily view it as negative. This theory would suggest that inequality is a natural result of some functions of a society being more valued than others, and in order to incentivise the best talent to go into the most important jobs, inequality is going to be a result. We pay medical doctors more than baristas because we believe that medicine requires specialized skills and knowledge capabilities that making our espresso in the morning does not.
Symbolic interactionism is interested in the symbolic nature of economic inequality. For example, this theory would be interested in how people spend their money. Why do some people spend a lot for a car or phone when a less expensive one would do? The idea of conspicuous consumption was presented by Veblen in latter part of the 19th century. He was interested in the rise of the leisure class. This group had discretionary money beyond what they needed to survive, and Veblen was intrigued by how they spent that money. This idea builds on the earlier concept of cultural capital from the French sociologist Bourdieu. He suggested that we consume differently if we are in the upper class than we do in a lower class. We seek out status symbols that demonstrate to others that we are successful.
Activity: Cultural Capital
Watch the following video about high culture in China:
We don’t get to choose who our parents are, nor their economic situation, yet we find that we are more likely to be in the same economic classification of our parents than not. In some societies, it is almost impossible to change our standing in society. If we are born into a system where class is established at birth, we may never see a change. In contrast, there are societies in which social mobility is more available. There are a variety of reasons why one society may provide more mobility than another. Educational opportunities, religious beliefs, and economic systems are just some of the factors that influence mobility.
Economic inequality has the promise and lure of climbing the ladder of fame and fortune. We have movie stars and sports athletes to thank for giving us hope than anyone can make it big. The reality is that with economic inequality comes the other side of equality as well – poverty. See the graph below showing households with food insecurity.
Bar diagram of Percentage of Households with Food Insecurity
Poverty is defined differently by different groups. Often the term is meant to convey that the income received by those in poverty is not enough to sustain the basics of a healthy life. Different nations and regions have their own definition of poverty and what level of income constitutes being poverty. In Canada for example, the low income cut-off (LICO) is one of the definitions used. It represents the line at which a family is spending a disproportionate amount of their income on basic necessities like food and housing. This number is updated each year and varies on the size of the family and what part of the country they live in. As you can see in Figure 6.6, not all individuals experience poverty at the same rate. In Canada being single or a lone parent increases the chances that you will be living below the poverty line.
Activity: Measure of Poverty
Do a little research on your own to find out how poverty is measured in your region. Consider the official government agency definitions but also look for definitions that may be used by not for profit organizations who try to help those in poverty.
Inequality affects more than our ability to buy the latest gadgets, or the newest fashions, or even live in a bigger house. Inequality has life and death consequences. Social determinants of health (SDOH) are variables associated with economic inequality that impacts our quality of life, our access to quality health care, and ultimately how long we might live. The best way to illustrate this is to have you go through one of the typical insurance sponsored websites that use algorithms insurance companies use to determine how much a risk you are. It is also quite helpful for budding sociologists to get a sense of the difference life choices and opportunities can make in influencing how long we are expected to live.
Here are some examples to explore:
Activity: How Long Will I Live?
In order to get a better appreciation of the impact of inequality in the world, use the lifespan calculator to see how different characteristics are associated with longevity. In this example you will see gender, racial, and economic factors all play a part. Don’t try to replicate your own life but just try different combination of characteristics to see how the lifespan is changed. Convert to metric if needed.
How Long Will I Live?
4.2 Gender Inequality
Gender is the next topic in which we explore the topic of inequality. Before we look more closely at inequality and gender, we need to have a better understanding of the terms we are using in our discussion. The sociology of sex and gender is a large and sometimes controversial topic. By sex, we refer to the biological markers that differentiate males and females. Typically, this is a chromosome of XY for males and XX for females, although a closer examination will show this is not a simple binary division among the population. Gender is a term that refers to socially constructed beliefs and behaviours about what it means to be masculine or feminine. Sociologists are particularly interested in this topic because of social nature. What it means to be masculine or feminine is highly influenced by the culture. For example, what constitutes masculine clothing or feminine roles is highly influenced by context. If we think a skirt is a piece of feminine clothing, what would say about a Scottish kilt? Or if we think cooking is a woman’s role, why are most of the world’s top chefs men? Gender identity is another important concept because it points to the reality that not all men identify with culturally mandated masculine markers. The same applies for females. Sociologists are interested in the way social scripts influence or socialize us to believe what we do about the way men and women are supposed to behave.
Source: Pixabay
In other words, how much does nature (our birth genetic make up) and nurture (the way we are socialized) affect the way experience and view gender? Gender inequality is played out in most areas of society. At home we see it in the division of labour in which woman tend to spend more time in home and child care while men spend more time in paid labour. The economic advantage of men has been historically linked to greater power and influence in the family. When men and women shared responsibilities for survival, the power differential was less than during agrarian times in which men tended to control the means of production. They owned the land and the equipment. In a post-industrial society, women have greater access to education and economic capital. As a result, the differences in earning power between men and women is declining. Women continue to deal with wage penalties and competing devotions between family and work life in ways that men do not experience.
Photo by Kelly Sikkema on Unsplash
In education, women now outnumber men in higher education, but inequity is still visible. In areas of science, technology, engineering, and math (STEM) curriculum, men outnumber women. These fields tend to be viewed as the more advantageous fields to be in especially in a post-industrial society.
Photo by Alex Sorto on Unsplash
Activity: GoldieBlox
Watch the video below and reflect on the way that you view the role roles of women in regards to STEM fields. (2 minutes)
Gendered Work
After reading the brief article in the link below, reflect on what you consider to be male jobs and female jobs and then consider why you think that.
Jobs for Men and Women
Inequality creates an opportunity for abuse of power and in connection to the topic of gender inequality, that translates into women being victims of abuse at the hands of men. Power and abuse are not the sole domain of men, yet statistics will demonstrate that women are almost always the victims of serious abuse. Feminist theory would point to the power imbalance that favours men being supported in society. Women with less resources in the form of education and capital (social and economic) have less options to leave an abusive relationship.
4.3 Racial and Ethnic Inequality
In this section we will learn about race and ethnicity and how these terms are associated with inequality within a culture. Like our discussion of gender and sex, race and ethnicity have both nature (biological components) and nurture (social components). We need to remember that sociologists are interested in social forces that shape people’s beliefs and behaviours. They are interested in why one group of people is treated differently than another, or why one group of people is viewed differently than another.
Defining groups is most easily done on outward visible appearance. When asked to describe someone you just saw, you are going to rely on the most obvious characteristics. If the person is much taller or shorter you may reference that, or older or younger, or has a different hair colour or visible tattoos. We might comment on their clothing or head covering. We do the same thing with skin colour and facial features because they are easily visible. In our discussion of inequality, our interests in these distinguishing features is how they are used to group people who then experience social life in unequal ways.
Image from Pixabay
Discrimination occurs when a group with unique visual or behavioural characteristics are treated unfairly through exclusion or disadvantaged opportunities. Racial profiling occurs when individuals of a particular racial group presumed to be associated with negative behaviour because of their appearance. What sociologists find so interesting about discrimination and racial profiling is that ideas of race and ethnicity are often viewed as purely genetic when in fact they are social. When asked how many races there are, people will usually select a small number of 3 to 5 groups. We need to understand that although the physical appearance of people is not all the same, the number of groups of people is a socially constructed number.
Activity: DNA Test
Watch the video below and reflect on how you may perceive those who look differently than you. (5 minutes)
Note that you may be asked to discuss this activity with your peers. Be sure to take notes and reflect on what you have learned.
Ethnicity, in contrast to race, is based not primarily on physical characteristics, but on symbolic cultural characteristics such as language and tradition. Ethnicity is more fluid than racial characteristics because they can be changed, unlike biological characteristics which are generally more static. Inequality among racial and ethnic groups is evident from areas such as policing, hiring, and perceived value to society.
Social Distance
Table explaining key concepts of Radicalization
Inequality manifests itself in race and ethnic differences at different levels of society. A person may exhibit racism at the individual level and not even be aware of their tendencies. Microaggression can be subtle behaviours that demonstrate the lack of inclusion or sensitivity to someone who is different than you. Something one person may consider to be a compliment could actually come across as demeaning. Microaggression often lies below the surface of everyday social life. On the other end of social levels, the macro level, is institutional racism. This form of racism is supported and encouraged by the state. An obvious example of this would be apartheid as practiced in South Africa during the latter half of the 20th century. Laws and rules are set up to disadvantage a whole group of people. This form of macro racism, when taken to the extreme, can result in genocide: the systematic, large scale annihilation of an entire ethnic group.
4.4 Global Inequality
Global inequality is the final area that we want to explore in this unit. Before discussing the issue inequality as it is applied globally, take a look at the video below to get a sense of the diversity of groups illustrated.
Activity: 100 People
Watch the following video.
Global inequality is an extension of inequality at a local level. Rather than looking at inequality with a city or a region of a country, global inequality studies the concept of inequality among nations and regions of the world. Rather than use hierarchical terms like first, second, and third world, today sociologists discuss two regions of the world, Global North and Global South. Global North countries tend to be economically and technological further along the development scale than Global South countries are.
Figure 9.1 and Table 9.1 do a good job of illustrating two economic measure of inequality in the world today.
List of top and bottom 10 countries, GDP and HDI
Pie chart of various countries with their economies
Global inequality must be understood in the context of globalization, another key sociological concept. Globalization is the increased homogenization of the world through international trade, travel, and exchange of material and symbolic culture. It is a local economy on an international scale. Technology allows us to communicate, buy and sell, travel, and experience the entire world like never before. Some think this is a good thing, while others are indifferent or strongly negative toward the idea.
Activity: McDonalds
Watch the graphic illustration of spread of McDonalds restaurants around the world. If you are a fan of Big Macs, then this may seem like a good thing.
Opponents of globalization see inequality among nations and regions as feeding grounds for exploitation. Conflict theorists would see international inequality as an extension of the inequality that occurs at the local level. Those countries or regions with the economic resources will take advantage of those that do not have these resources. It is just a bigger version of the haves and have-nots. There are several sub theories that use this inequality to illustrate their concerns. One of these is the World System Theory put forward by Wallenstein.
Diagram of the flow of goods and resources
Photo credit: Wikimedia Commons
The theory states that Global North countries exploit Global South countries by taking their raw material like oil, gold or other valuable resources and turn them into finished products only to then turn around and sell those items to those countries.
If you have seen the movie, Avatar, then you have a pretty good idea of world systems theory only at the intergalactic level.
Movie poster of the film Avatar
Activity: The Real Avatar Story
Go online and read about the movie Avatar by James Cameron, then take a look at the article link below which describes the movie but from a conflict perspective. What do you think the movie is really about?
Structural functionalists see free trade and open markets are providing a better opportunity for competition and rewarding efficiency. They see globalization as a positive development. Feminists see women being the primary ones who are exploited by globalization. Women are often given the most menial jobs in society, and when employed by an international company, they are often taken advantage of and paid poorly. Symbolic interactionists explore meaning making and value creation of globalization. What is foreign and what is domestic? What is real progress? Do we value profit over quality of life? These are some of the issues symbolic interactionists are interested in studying. (Click to enlarge the photo)
Image of major components of a car
Source: Global Auto Parts Cyprus
Technology is at the heart of globalization. Without airplanes, computers, and smartphones to name a few, the world would be more isolated and harder to connect. You know what is going on in the world in real time. Using social media, such as a Twitter feed, Facebook status update, or Instagram post puts you in touch with news, trends, and developments as they happen. Diffusion can happen much more quickly than in the past. Both social and mainstream media are selective in what they present and how they present it. Is a new Nike Factory in Bangladesh a good thing or not? Media influences our views on these issues and those with greater resources may be able to influence the narrative compared to those who don’t.
Another big issue related to globalization and inequality is the role of migration. International migration represents the movement of human beings from their home country to one or more receiving countries. Refugees represent a large percentage of migrants, but those seeking out better economic opportunities represent a much larger portion of international migration. Often these migrants are highly educated and valuable to their home country but they leave in order to leverage that human capital. This perpetuates the inequality through brain drain.
Summary
In Unit 4, you were exposed to the topic of inequality and how it plays out in various spheres of society. By looking at economic, gender, racial, and global inequality you were able to get a better grasp as to why sociologists are so interested in inequality; its roots, its impact on human lives, and ways to alleviate it. Each topic is large and contains a wealth of information. Common to all aspects of inequality is the place of economic inequality represented in each topic. Conflict theorists are probably feeling pretty good about themselves after this section. Economic differences have a ripple effect on so many other social areas. Economic wealth brings power and influence at the macro level as illustrated by World Systems theory, and at the micro level this is evident in macroaggressions between groups with and without power. If inequality produces such different social outcomes, is there a way to end it, or at least to mitigate the negative impact it can have? Political and economic systems have different views and solutions. For now, it is key to understand the importance of inequality creating different pathways in the social world.
Assessment
Quizzes 6, 7, 8, and 9
After completing this unit, including the learning activities, you are asked to complete four online quizzes reviewing material from chapters 6-9.
These quizzes are meant to be formative, and a tool to help you measure your own understanding of the course material.
Go to Quizzes in the main Assessment tab for access to Quizzes 6-9. Note that the quizzes will be administered in the Learning Lab.
Be sure to practice with the online quizzes from the textbook.
Assignment: Reflective Journal
The Reflective Journal assignment is a chance to present your understanding and application of the course material, ask questions, and clarify issues. We are looking for evidence that you are engaging the course material. Examine the learning outcomes for each unit and ensure that your journal addresses each outcome. Include your thoughts from the learning activities and how you apply the concepts to your life and current events.
Checking your Learning
Before you move on to the next unit, you may want to check to make sure that you are able to: